Biology Reference
In-Depth Information
colonialism, two systems that favor certain groups of people over others ( Marks, 2008 ). It was
considered that those not fit enough were simply not destined to survive and reproduce. This
fate was not the fault of any person or institution, but through the destiny set forth by science.
Evolution was therefore unfortunately used to explain and validate the differences between
the classes, the races, and the sexes.
Eugenics
Social Darwinism also led to the belief that social and cultural traits (e.g., poverty, propen-
sity to criminality) were inherited as were physical traits. Francis Galton (Darwin's cousin)
coined the term “eugenics” in 1883 (from the Greek for “well born”) to espouse his ideas
of artificial selection for human beings ( Shipman, 1994 ). In his view, “undesirable” traits
were inherited, and therefore breeding programs for humans could be designed to combat
the propagation of undesirable traits by allowing only “desirables” 11 to mate ( Montagu,
1964b; Gould, 1981; Shipman, 1994 :111; Graves, 2001; Paul, 2008 ). Galton argued that it
was society's responsibility to control human reproduction so that the lower classes
(including criminals and the poor) would be prevented from passing on their defects
( Paul, 2008 ). Clearly, there was no consideration or even acknowledgment of any effect the
environment had on the development of various “undesirable” characters. Of course, the
environment in large part included the social conditions that the higher classes had imposed
to create the lower classes.
Ernst Haeckel, who was a contemporary of Darwin's and a German biologist, further
developed ideas such as these. He argued incorrectly that evolution was progressive and
goal-directed leading to an ideal form (he argued for the Aryan type) and that social and
cultural traits were freely inherited without influence from the environment ( Graves,
2001 ). Similar to many of his contemporaries, Haeckel believed in a social hierarchy. For
example, Haeckel wrote (disturbingly by today's standards) in 1905 (emphasis added),
“These lower races
are psychologically nearer to the mammals (apes or dogs) than to civi-
lized Europeans; we must, therefore, assign a totally different value to their lives.”
Charles Davenport, an influential American biologist in the early twentieth century, was
responsible for introducing eugenics to the United States 12 ( Shipman, 1994; Marks, 2008 ).
His topic, Heredity in Relation to Eugenics (1911), fed on the fears of the ruling class Ameri-
cans, mainly that the influx of immigrants with certain undesirable traits (poverty, propen-
sity towards criminality, homosexuality, chronic illness, etc.) would lead to the downfall of
society ( Davenport, 1911; Marks, 2008 ). Davenport's main thesis was that biology was
behind the development or downfall of civilization. Five years later, Madison Grant used
these ideas to argue that the answer to the problem lay in the sterilization of people deemed
to be unfit (1916). This topic, and other eugenic writings, 13
.
led to eugenics laws with 30
11 One of the key dangers here is in who gets to decide which traits are “desirable” and which traits are not.
12 Interestingly, while eugenic ideas spread worldwide, each country or region focused on one aspect more
heavily than another (e.g., class differences in one country versus race differences in another) ( Marks, 2008 )
thereby illustrating the pervasive nature of culture to even influence emphasis of racist thought.
13 Not every scientist agreed with the tenets of eugenics, including Franz Boas (e.g., see Boas, 1918a ), but
few came out publicly to denounce it in the early days of the movement ( Marks, 2008 ).
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