Vanadium - Toxicology of Metals - page 889

then followed for 31 days. The data obtained could be
fi tted to a three-exponential function corresponding
formally to a three-compartment model, with an initial
rapid decrease in serum concentrations with half-lives
of 1.2 and 26 hours, followed by a longer half-life of
10 days. The terminal phase accounted for approxi-
mately 80% of the total area under the serum concen-
tration curve (AUC). A total of 24.9

referring to a study by Barbieri et al . from 1988 (HSE,
2002).
Concentrations of vanadium in human serum in
Belgium (using RNAA without preseparation) were
reported to be 0.024-0.939 and 0.016-0.139

g/L in non-
exposed healthy men and women, respectively (Cor-
nelis et al ., 1981). Slightly lower values using the same
method were reported in whole blood in nonexposed
children and adults from Czechoslovakia (e.g., 0.024-
0.226 and 0.032-0.095

µ

g (about 52% of
the dose) was recovered in the urine after 12 days. The
calculated amount of vanadium retained in the body
was 16.5

µ

g/L, respectively) (Kucera
et al ., 1992). There was no signifi cant difference between
children and adults. Children living near a V 2 O 5 pro-
ducing plant had signifi cantly higher blood vanadium
concentrations than control children (i.e., median 0.078
vs. 0.042

µ

g. The remaining amount not accounted for
(approximately 13% of the administered dose) was
possibly excreted in the feces. This was in line with the
previously reported fecal excretion of vanadium found
in humans and experimental animals after intravenous
administration (IPCS, 2001).

µ

g/L). In a study of 65 healthy adult subjects
from Northern Italy (using INAA with preseparation),
vanadium blood concentrations were between 0.09 and
1.1

µ

g/L (Minoia et al ., 1990).
Serum concentrations in 415 samples from the same
area, (analyzed with GF-AAS) were 0.07-1.80

µ g/L, with a mean of 0.35 µ

6 BIOLOGICAL MONITORING

µ g/L

Biological monitoring of vanadium in serum, blood,
and urine has been used to monitor vanadium levels
in the general population or occupational exposure
to vanadium compounds. Elevated levels above the
reference range are often found in workers, although
not necessarily associated with clinical symptoms
(e.g., eye and respiratory symptoms or gastrointestinal
disturbances). The reference range for vanadium used
by the Trace Element and Environmental Toxicology
Laboratory at the University of Alberta Hospitals in
Canada is 0-160 nmol (0-9

(mean, 0.62 g/L). Suggested references ranges includ-

ing 95% of the examined population were 0.09-0.75 in
blood and 0.07-1.1

µ

g/L in serum. In a review by Sabbi-
oni et al . (1996), it was proposed that normal vanadium
values in blood and serum of the general population
were approximately 1 nmol/L (0.05

µ

g/L).
Analyses of vanadium concentrations in urine have
been regularly used to monitor exposure to vanadium
compounds in different industrial activities. The vana-
dium concentrations in different studies (between 1987
and 1995) that were reviewed by the UK HSE had a
wide range, from 0.1-762

µ

g/L) in 24-hour urine col-
lection (Guidotti et al ., 1997). The biological exposure
index (BEI) Committee of the American Conference of
Governmental Hygienists has recommended a BEI of
50

µ

g/L (HSE, 2002). In recent
studies on boiler cleaning operators, the personal
exposure to vanadium dusts ranged from <0.04-88.70
µ

µ

g/g creatinine for end of shift urine specimens col-
lected at the end of a work week (ACGIH, 1995-1996).
The BEI value is exposure related and is based on the
calculated urine vanadium concentration arising from
exposure at the 8-hour TLV (threshold limit value)
of 0.5 mg/m 3 over a 40-hour exposure period (HSE,
2002). According to the UK Health and Safety Execu-
tive, a tentative level for a biological monitoring guid-
ance value (BMGV) using the criteria establishing good
occupational hygiene practice would be 10

µ g/m 3 , and the vanadium concentrations in urine

were between 0.1 and 322 g/L. The major factors

infl uencing the vanadium uptake were determined to
be the cleaning method (wet washing or dry brushing),
the level of respiratory protective equipment used,
and the vanadium content of the inhaled dust (which
ranged from 0.1%-15% vanadium).
Vanadium concentrations in urine were recently
analyzed with ICP-MS in Spanish hazardous waste
incinerator workers ( n = 20); these were 3.4-32.8

µ

g/L (HSE,
2002). There is some controversy concerning whether
spot samples of urine need to be corrected for creatinine
or not. The ideal sample would be urine collected over
a 24-hour period. Because this is usually not practical,
the ACGIH recommends that samples be collected at a
specifi c time in relation to exposure (preshift and post-
shift) and corrected for creatinine (ACGIH, 1995-1996).
However, the UK Health and Safety Executive does
not consider correction to creatinine to be necessary,

µ g V/g

creatinine. The range in a small group of administra-
tive workers ( n = 3) was 3.2-16.4

µ

g V/g creatinine
(Agramunt et al ., 2003). Urine vanadium concentra-
tions (using HR-ICP-MS) in 131 children (aged 6-10)
in the urban area of Rome were seen to be lower
(i.e., 0.02-0.22

µ

g V/g creatinine) (Alimonti et al ., 2000).
Concentrations of vanadium in hair, ranging from
20-60 ng/g have been reported by different authors
(Byrne and Kosta, 1978; Gordus et al ., 1974). Ranges

µ