Chemistry Reference
In-Depth Information
coupled argon plasma (ICAP)-atomic emission spec-
troscopy (Hahn
et al
., 1982; Wolnik
et al
., 1981) have
reported detection limits for bismuth of 40 ng/mL
with a relative SD of <6%. Biological samples should
be wet washed with nitric, sulfuric, and perchloric
acids (Delves
et al
., 1973; Hall and Farber, 1972; Kinser,
1966). Spectrophotometry with dithizone has a detec-
tion limit of about 0.01 mg/L, but lead interferes and
has to be separated from bismuth (Pinta, 1970). Spark
source mass spectrometry (SSMS) has been used for
the determination of bismuth in human tissues; it has
a limit of detection of 0.002
from which associated metals such as copper, lead, and
zinc are removed by suitable fl uxes is a widely used
technological process for the production of bismuth
(Panel on Bismuth, 1970; Paone, 1970). As indicated
in Figure 1, bismuth production has steadily risen
since 1945, except for two relatively short periods, one
of decrease followed by one of stabilized production
(USGS, 2004). In 2002,the world production of bismuth
was 4070 metric tons.
3.2 Uses
Approximately 64.5% of bismuth is consumed in
the United States in low-melting alloys and metallur-
gical additives, including electronic and thermoelectric
applications. The remainder is used for catalysts, pear-
lescent pigments in cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, and
industrial chemicals. Bismuth compounds have been
used as dusting powders, astringents, antiseptics, ant-
acids, and radiopaque agents in X-ray diagnosis (now
replaced by barium sulfate). Another obsolete use is in
the treatment of syphilis, where bismuth compounds
have been replaced by penicillin. Bismuth compounds
that have been most widely used in therapy include
bismuth potassium tartrate, basic carbonate, gallate,
nitrate, salicylate, and bismuth magma (suspension
of hydroxide and basic carbonate suspension) (Panel
on Bismuth, 1970). More recently, bismuth has been
incorporated into the production of nanotechnology
for a variety of purposes (Gao
et al
., 2005; Wang
et al
.,
2004; Zvonkov
et al
., 2000). Effects of the clinical uses of
bismuth compounds are discussed in Section 7.1.2.1.
g/kg wet weight (Hamil-
ton
et al
., 1972; 1973). There is not enough information
to evaluate the accuracy of these methods.
Studies using inductively coupled-mass spectrom-
etry (ICP-MS) on human serum samples have reported
a detection limit of 0.007
µ
g/L with relative standard
deviations of 5.7-13.6% (Vanhoe
et al
., 1993).
µ
3 PRODUCTION AND USES
3.1 Production
Bismuth occurs in native form and in minerals such
as bismite (bismite oxide) and bismuthite (bismuth
sulfi de), which is usually associated with sulfi de ores
of lead and copper and tin dioxide. The production of
metallic bismuth is linked to lead and copper refi ning.
The current world production is approximately 3600
tons, the main producers being Australia, Japan, Peru,
and Mexico (Carlin, 1982; USGS, 2004). Pyrometallurgi-
cal separation of calcium-magnesium-bismuth drosses
5,000
4,500
4,000
3,500
3,000
2,500
2,000
1,500
1,000
500
0
1945
1950
1955
1960
1965
1970
1975
1980
1985
1990
1995
2000
2002
Year
FIGURE 1
Bismuth world production (metric tons).
