Geoscience Reference
In-Depth Information
Exploitation of mineral resources in the deep seabed, in particular polymetallic sulph-
ide deposits associated with hydrothermal vent systems, is now closer to becoming a real-
ity. The International Seabed Authority has entered into 15-year contracts for exploration
for polymetallic nodules, polymetallic sulphides, and cobalt-rich crusts in the deep seabed
with 15 contractors, pursuant to Resolution II of the Third UN Conference on the Law of
the Sea. The first of these contracts was signed in 2001, with others following over recent
years. The contracts allow the contractors to explore in specified parts of the deep oceans
outside national jurisdiction. UnderISAregulations, each contractor hasthe exclusive right
to explore an initial area of up to 150,000 square kilometres. Twelve of these contracts are
for exploration for polymetallic nodules in the Clarion Clipperton Fracture Zone, with two
contracts for exploration for polymetallic sulphides in the South West Indian Ridge and the
Mid Atlantic Ridge, and one contract for exploration for cobalt-rich crusts in the Western
Many deep water seep environments are sites of significant reservoirs of petroleum
and natural gas. In the Gulf of Mexico, offshore exploitation of oil and gas in proximity
with seep communities has been occurring for decades. Reduced sea ice in the Arcticis
likely to provide expanding opportunities for oil extraction, although such efforts could be
hampered initially by movements of sea ice in some areas. It is believed that the Arctic
seabed may contain substantial oil fields, the exploitation of which would bring with it
environmental concerns about spills and their cleanup in remote, hard-to-reach environ-
ments (ACIA,
2005
). Additionally, international debates as to which nations can claim sov-
ereignty or ownership over the waters of the Arctic and their resources are likely to surface.
A burgeoning carbon economy provides incentive for commercial interests to exper-
iment with schemes for ocean fertilization and deep-sea carbon sequestration. Ocean fer-
tilization refers to the process of stimulating phytoplankton growth in the surface ocean
through the addition of nutrients, in particular iron. These nutrients are thought to limit
phytoplankton growth in many areas of the ocean, and it has been argued that the phyto-
plankton blooms resulting from fertilization will help remove CO
2
and mitigate climate
change. As a result, ocean fertilization is being actively promoted by several commercial
