Emerging and unresolved issues: the example of marine genetic resources of areas beyond national jurisdiction - Ocean Sustainability in the 21st Century - page 309

(Leary et al ., 2009 ). These patents are held by private companies as well as by govern-
mental and academic institutions, and most are based on organisms collected from within
national jurisdiction. The number of patents filed based on marine organisms in general has
grown steadily by 12% per year, with 95% of patent claims having been filed after 2000
(Arnaud-Haond et al. , 2011 ) . However, not all patents result in commercialized products
and subsequent profits. For example, in the field of pharmaceuticals, thus far, only 1-2% of
pre-clinical candidates have become commercial products (Aricò and Salpin, 2005 ).Where
companies are successful, though, there is a potential for high financial rewards. For ex-
ample, sales in the USA of the pain medication Prialt, which is based on a synthetic deriv-
ative from marine cone shell ( Conus magus ) venom from the shallow waters of the Indo-
Pacific, were approximately $20 million and $18 million in 2009 and 2008, respectively
(The Pharma Letter, 2010 ; PR Newswire, 2010 ) .
Patented inventions related to marine organisms are based on a range of source mater-
ial, from invertebrates to microbes. While not all inventions are patented and information
is therefore scarce on the organisms of particular interest, available information indicates
that most patented inventions involve molluscs (sea slugs, sea hares, cone snails), corals
(particularly softcorals), sponges, tunicates, worms, bryozoans, algae, andvertebrates such
as fish, including sharks. Marine sponges have been a common source of pharmaceuticals,
with compounds extracted from sponges having shown promise for the treatment of cancer,
asthma, Alzheimer's, arthritis, inflammation, and other ailments. Several are in clinical tri-
als, and at least one potential cancer drug from a deep-sea sponge from the Gulf of Mexico
is under investigation. One example of a drug from a marine source is Yondelis®, which is
used for treating soft tissue sarcoma and ovarian cancer. It was originally sourced from the
sea squirt Ecteinascidia turbinata by the Spanish company PharmaMar, and is currently li-
censed for use in the European Union (PharmaMar, 2014 ; Leary et al ., 2009 ) . Some fish
and other organisms from polar areas have yielded anti-freeze proteins used for the control
of cold-induced damage in medical, food, and cosmetic products. Marine algae are a com-
mon source of cosmetic compounds, including for anti-ageing products (Aricò and Salpin,
2005 ; Leary et al ., 2009 ) . Marine microbes have also been an important source of patented