Challenges in using valuation in ecosystem-based management in a marine context: the case of UK Marine Protected Area designation - Ocean Sustainability in the 21st Century - page 227

7.2 Ecosystem services typologies
The concept of ecosystem services provides a mechanism for people to understand how our
existence is linked with the natural environment and has been defined as 'the benefits that
humans obtain from ecosystems' (MA, 2005 ) . The need for a typology of ecosystem ser-
vices arises so as to ensure that all of these benefits are made explicit, as any omission of
benefitcategoriesleadstoasystemicunder-representation ofthebenefitsarisingfrommeas-
uresaimedatconservingnature.Thecoreprincipleistomakethebenefitsvisible,toremove
what is otherwise a pro-extractive, contra-conservation bias in decision-making. But there is
also a corollary to this argument in that the typology must be designed so as to avoid double-
counting.
The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity (TEEB) study (TEEB 2010 ) has de-
veloped such a typology, following (but modifying) the framework used in the Millennium
Ecosystem Assessment (MA, 2005 ) . There are four main categories of services: (1) provi-
sioning services such as sea fish for human consumption; (2) regulating services such as gas
and climate regulation; (3) supporting/habitat services (e.g. seagrass beds providing a nurs-
eryhabitatforjuvenilefish);and(4)cultural/amenityservicessuchasleisureandrecreation.
The typologies in TEEB ( 2010 ) and MA ( 2005 ) are both constructed from a terrestrial
ecosystem perspective; Beaumont et al . ( 2008 ) argue that marine ecosystems have been
marginalized. Costanza et al . ( 1997 ) value global ecosystem services and natural capital at
US$16-54 trillion per annum, and this remains arguably the most significant publication
in the valuation literature. Notwithstanding the methodological controversies as to the
actual estimates reported, the ratio of marine/terrestrial ecosystem service values is note-
worthy, with marine ecosystems providing around two-thirds of the global aggregate. If
this is coupled with the evidence to support the contention that this service provisioning is
threatened (e.g. Halpern et al ., 2008 ) , then the need for a service typology that is framed for
marine ecosystems follows. and one that is internally consistent, i.e. a typology that avoids
double-counting. Boyd and Banzhaf ( 2007 ) go so far as to argue that a lack of internal con-