Agriculture Reference
In-Depth Information
individual farmers to address these issues.
Instead, state policies and the industry have
made attempts to minimize environmental
waste. In 1997, a moratorium was placed on the
construction of farms with more than 250 hogs
or the expansion of existing hog farms in North
Carolina. Several years later, Smithfield Foods,
who operates the largest meat processing plant
in the world in eastern North Carolina, devel-
oped an agreement with the Attorney General
of North Carolina to fund research for environ-
mentally superior technologies that could
reduce potential environmental harm.
Unfortunately, the project concluded that while
there are several existing viable options for
reducing environmental impacts, alternatives
are too expensive for the average farmer (Collins,
2006). State policies have also been largely inef-
fective in dealing with environmental justice
issues, as the state moratorium's loopholes
allowed for more than 500,000 new hogs to be
added on to farms between 1997 and 2007.
One future hope for the region is the emer-
gence of carbon offset markets and payment for
ecosystem services (discussed in further detail
below). These programmes may offer some solu-
tions for the future as hog farmers may be able to
adopt practices such as anaerobic digesters and
receive payment - thus reducing environmental
impacts and improving their own economic via-
bility (Subler, 2011).
and Prevention estimates that annually in the
USA there are between 10,000 and 20,000 pesti-
cide poisonings. Farm-workers and their families
are at a high risk for pesticide exposure, which
can lead to health problems (Simcox
et al
., 1995;
Salvatore
et al
., 2008).
Potential concerns for environmental
health and safety for agricultural workers is also
important beyond the ranch. Today there are
nearly 400,000 people employed in meat pro-
cessing throughout the nation (BOLS, 2011).
More than 80% of meat-processing workers are
people of colour with almost 60% of all meat-
processing workers classified as Latino (Liu and
Apollon, 2011). Meat processing jobs are con-
sistently ranked as one of the most dangerous
jobs in the USA as workers are highly susceptible
to injury. The repetitive tasks of slicing and lift-
ing can also lead to cumulative injuries like car-
pal tunnel syndrome and back strains (BOLS,
2011).
As the diversity of agriculture increases,
it is important to consider environmental
justice, and health and safety. Farm-workers
need working conditions that prevent expo-
sure to environmental and human health
contaminants. This may in part be alleviated
through increased language education for
farm-workers, meat processors and employers
to safeguard well-being. Education and out-
reach related to risk and exposure for hazard-
ous working conditions or agricultural inputs
can also assist in reducing potential farm-
worker and processor exposures (Arcury
et al
.,
2002). Government and industry regulations
can also play a significant role in reducing
potential harm by increasing standards for
safe working conditions.
Working to mitigate any environmental or
public health impacts resulting from agricul-
ture is challenging since it is often difficult to
quantify and demonstrate impacts. Furthermore,
ensuring that claims about environmental pol-
lution are substantiated can also be difficult.
Non-farmers or ranchers may submit environ-
mental complaints for practices that may be
accepted in agriculture. For example, one study
found that citizen environmental complaints of
livestock facilities were overwhelmingly for
odour and surface water; however, the odour
complaints were often for accepted management
practices in animal agriculture that did not
Environmental health and safety in
animal production
Along with potential health impacts in com-
munities from animal facilities health impacts
can also be a concern for farmers, ranchers and
agricultural workers. Seasonal farm-worker com-
munities may also not have access to food or clean
water and may be disproportionately exposed to
environmental contaminants (US EPA, 2012).
For livestock facilities, one of the most dangerous
air emissions is hydrogen sulfide, an acute gas
that can cause death (Gerasimon
et al
., 2007).
Each year there are deaths from hydrogen sulfide
poisoning as farmers and farm-workers enter
manure pits or other confined spaces that are
not adequately ventilated (NIOSH, 2007).
Pesticide exposure is another potential hazard
in agriculture. The Centers for Disease Control
