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elapsed, each subject was classified as a 'solver' or as a 'non-solver' and his/her
knowledge graph was drawn. Solvers' and non-solvers' knowledge graphs were
shown to have different connectivity.
According to EII, reading the story results in both explicit memory retrieval and
implicit memory search (incubation). However, explicit processing (mostly rule-
based; Principle #1) brings up stereotypical associations from the story. In contrast,
the gradient of associations is flatter in implicit memory [ 20 ] and weak associations
are recorded. The search is thus more diffused, and more remote (“creative”) associ-
ations can be retrieved with soft constraint satisfaction. According to the EII theory,
implicit processing allows for the retrieval of more approximate, more hypothetical
associations that differ from those retrieved explicitly. These implicit associations
are then integrated with the result of explicit processing (Principle #4). If the chosen
integrated association is deemed plausible (i.e., if the ICL is high enough), a question
concerning the validity of this association is put to the experimenter. If the experi-
menter confirms the association, it is added into explicit knowledge; otherwise, it is
removed. This process is iterated; explicit and implicit processing are restarted with
the new state of knowledge. This iterative process ends when the subject finds the
solution or the allowed time elapses.
The results of 8,000 CLARION-based simulations show that, consistent with the
EII explanation above, the probability of solving the problem increases with the
stochasticity of the implicit association retrieval. See [ 15 ] for details.
8.6 Motivation, Emotion, Personality, and Social
Interaction
Beyond the interaction between implicit and explicit processes as stipulated by the EII
theory, creativity involves many other aspects of the human mind. Below, a number
of important psychological aspects are discussed in relation to creativity. CLARION
can be used to provide interpretations to these aspects.
For instance, it has been known that motivation has a lot to do with creativity. One
of the most relevant findings is that intrinsic motivation is correlated with creativity.
However, intrinsic motivation may lead to generating new ideas, but new ideas will
not be judged as creative unless they are also useful (as defined by some communal
standards). Individuals with prosocial motivation and good at perspective taking
should be better at generating useful ideas. Grant andBerry [ 14 ] tested experimentally
whether or not intrinsic motivation and prosocial motivation combined result in
greater creativity and their results confirmed the expectation.
It is also known that anxiety has debilitating (or facilitating) effects on routine
cognitive or motor tasks. Byron and Khazanchi [ 6 ] performed a meta-analysis and
found that anxiety was significantly negatively related to creative performance—
Anxiety and creativity present competing cognitive demands. Other emotions are
also known to have significant effects on creativity (see, e.g., [ 1 , 2 ]).
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