Biology Reference
In-Depth Information
pathogens with mucosal surfaces (i.e., conjunctivae, nasal mucosa, and oral
mucosa) (see
Chapter 7
). Contexts in which close proximity and/or physical
contact occur can lead to respiratory pathogen transmission. Not all human
demographic groups are equal with respect to their capacity to spread disease.
Targeting interventions at higher-risk groups may be a useful strategy for redu-
cing risk of disease transmission. For example, children typically suffer from
upper respiratory infections at rates that far exceed adults, and must therefore
be considered to pose a higher risk of transmitting infection. Obviously, people
who display symptoms of infection (e.g., coughing, sneezing, runny nose, etc)
are likely to be infectious. Focusing interventions on specific high-risk groups
can facilitate implementation, decrease the amount of resources required and
make interventions more acceptable to the public.
Specific management options include screening for illness (for example,
asking visitors to a monkey temple whether they have cold symptoms), pro-
viding face masks to symptomatic individuals, and requiring people to wash
their hands before they enter an area where they might have direct or indir-
ect contact with macaques. Certainly, providing well researched and tested
education materials via pamphlets, signage, and having informed guides
available can increase awareness of the dangers (especially to macaques) of
pathogen transmission, and can potentially lead people to behave in ways
that decrease infectious risk for macaques. This approach is used by eco-
tourism groups (e.g., in Africa) to reduce the risk of transmission of endemic
human pathogens to great apes (Köndgen
et al
.,
2008
). Specific activities
that are likely to bring people and macaques into contact or close proximity,
such as feeding or encouraging macaques to climb onto a person's shoulders,
present a high risk for pathogen transmission and should be curtailed to the
extent possible.
Oral-fecal pathogens (e.g., enteroviruses, bacteria, and intestinal parasites
like giardia and amoebae) are transmitted through the ingestion of contami-
nated food, water, and fomites (i.e., inanimate objects contaminated with an
infectious agents). A person handing a piece of food to a macaque can thus
transmit a pathogen present on his hand to the macaque, which becomes
infected when it eats the contaminated food. Strategies to reduce the risks of
human-to-macaque transmission of these agents should prioritize proper con-
tainment of refuse (see section on refuse disposal, above) and discourage direct
and indirect (i.e., though food and fomites) physical contact between people
and macaques. Disposal of human waste should take into account the need to
prevent the contamination of water supplies likely to be used by macaques.
Thus, effective and safe sewage disposal and clean water sources, important
safeguards of public health, can also have “spin-off” benefits for the health of
macaque populations.
