Biology Reference
In-Depth Information
there have not been any studies to date that specifically address these conflicts,
there has been significant work done in other areas of human-animal conflict
that utilize attitude-behavior theory and attitude change theory (Bright and
Manfredo,
1997
; Manfredo, Teel, and Henry
2009
; Needham
et al
.,
2007
; Teel
and Manfredo,
2010
; Whittaker, Vaske, and Manfredo,
2006
). Approaching
conservation communication and educational campaigns using the available
scientific frameworks is strongly encouraged.
Management of specific contexts
Options to control crop-raiding macaques
Long-tailed macaques are not always the most intensive crop-raiders (relative
to other mammalian raiders), but they can be significant crop-raiders in some
areas (Marchal and Hill,
2009
) (Gumert, Chapter 1). Crop-raiding macaques
present difficultlies for farmers and strategies to alleviate the damage are needed.
There is no fully effective single strategy for preventing primate crop raiding,
although studies on other primate species offer a framework for mitigation.
One effective technique is vigilant guarding, and this is a common practice in
several localities (Chhangani and Mohnot,
2004
; Hill,
2000
; Naughton-Treves,
1997
; Sprague and Iwasaki,
2006
; Tweheyo, Hill, and Obua,
2005
; Wang,
Curtis, and Lassoie,
2010
). There are few alternatives more effective than hav-
ing people chasing animals as they come into crop areas. Guarding, however,
is manpower intensive, and in order to lessen the need for continual guard-
ing, some farmers have constructed fencing systems (Chhangani and Mohnot,
2004
; Wang, Curtis, and Lassoie,
2010
). Unfortunately, fencing must cover
large areas and the primate raiders are often able to navigate around fences,
even if electrified (Strum,
1994
). Details on the shortcomings of constructed
fences are scarce and future studies of fencing and barricades are needed to
develop improvements.
Deterrent methods include chemicals such as the scent of predators, or the
sounds of predators, gunshots, firecrackers, water hoses or guns, sling shots
and/or primate alarm calls to inhibit entering cropland. These can all be useful
strategies in the short term (Strum,
1994
), but the effectiveness of some tech-
niques can wear off if they are used frequently enough to habituate animals to
the aversive stimulus. It is best to use a variety of detterents to keep the animals
more vigilant and apprehensive. The use of chemical repellants, such as oleo
capsicum and HATE 4C to modify the taste of food has not been found to be
significantly effective at stopping baboon raiders, and thus may also not work
with macaques. In contrast, Strum (
1994
) has shown that “conditioned taste
